Kuki National organisation

The Kukis are indigenous people of Zale’n-gam, ‘Land of Freedom’. Zale’n-gam refers to the contiguous ancestral lands situated in present-day Northeast India, Northwest Burma and the Chittagong Hill tracts in Bangladesh. The Kukis lived in this part of the Indian sub-continent without being separated by international boundaries up until the early part of the twentieth-century. They were an independent people comprising numerous clans, each governed by its chieftain according to Kuki law, customs and tradition. After 1937, under British colonialists’ administration the upper Chindwin and Kale Kabow valley in present-day Sagaing Division was incorporated into Burma, the Chittagong Hill Tracts to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), and the adjoining Kuki Hills ranging from present-day Manipur to Nagaland, Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills in Assam, Tripura and the former Lushai Hills to India.

The dismemberment of Kuki territory and its incorporation within the three independent nations: India, Burma and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), has caused immense socio-economic and political hardships to the people. The effects continue to haunt the people to this day. Another major impact of this state of dispersal concerns the people’s identity. However, despite the absence of a known script, and consequently a lack of written contemporaneous history, the oral tradition, recognized as a key stone in the reconstruction of communities dispossessed of written documents (Vansina, 1985), has served to retain vital elements of the Kuki people’s past and their identity. Other aspects that connect the people with the earlier period is their shared history, the mutually intelligible dialects, a common culture, customs and traditions, which have remained intact. Folk-lore, genealogy and traditional forms of compositions and musical instruments have also remained unaltered. These characteristics of the people define them as a distinct entity, and combined with the oral traditions help to preserve the people’s past and ethnicity. Carey and Tuck (1978 (reprinted), p2) perceptibly observed that the people’s rich traditions, wealth of manners and customs all point to one origin.

Who Are The Kukis?

Various scholars and British colonialist officials broadly describe the Kukis as belonging to the Mongolian stock. Fro example, Yule (1885), Col Phyre (1886) and McCabe) concluded that the Kukis belong to the Indo-Chinese family, and Capt Forbes and GA Grierson categorise them as belonging to the Tibeto-Burman group. Taw Sien Kho, a lecturer at Cambridge University classified the Kukis as a sub-family of the Turaneans, which include the Japanese, Chinese and Siamese. A pertinent query that arises is how the term ‘Kuki’ came to denote a particular ethnic group. According to Col Reid (1893), the term ‘Kuki’ is a Bengali word meaning ‘hill-men’ or ‘highlanders’. In his view, from the time of Warren Hastings, ‘Kuki’ had come to be regarded as a conglomeration of various tribes. Capt Lewin (1870), the then Deputy Commissioner of Chittagong Hill Tracts, observed that the Kukis are a powerful and independent people. MacCrea described the Kukis as a nation of hunters and warriors, ruled by their principal hereditary Chiefs or Raja, but divided into clans, each under its own chief.

Regarding the categorisation of Kukis, William Shaw (1929), a British civil servant, stated that the Koms, Aimols, Khotlangs (Kholhangs), Thadous, Lushais, Pois (Pawis) Paites, Gantes, Darlungs (Darlong), Khelma, Biete and several others are undoubtedly all connected. Lt Col Shakespear (1912, introduction) noted that the term ‘Kuki’ has come to have a fairly definite meaning, and we now understand by it certain closely allied clans, with well-marked characteristics, belonging to the Tibeto-Burman stock. In Shakespear’s view the term Kuki includes Aimol, Chothe, Chiru, Koireng, Kom, Purum, Anal, Lamgang, Moyon, Monsang, Gangte, Vaiphei, Simte, Paite, Thadou, Hmar and Zou. According to GA Grierson, in Linguistic Survey of India, the tribes connoted by Kuki includes Anals, Aimols, Chirus, Gangte, Hmars, Koms, Lushais, Paites, Purums, Raltes, Suktes, and Thadou, each able to understand the other’s dialect and having a common social and cultural life and place of origin. A classification of Kuki by Prof JK Bose (1934), a renowned anthropologist, includes Chiru, Chothe, Anal, Kom, Tarao, Aimol, Purum, Lamgang, Wainem, Thadou, Lushai and Paite.

In independent India, the above classification that highlight the fact of common ethnicity and identity has been represented under ‘Any Kuki Tribes’ in the Constitutional Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes lists of 1951 in the states of Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and in Nagaland simply as ‘Kuki’. However, the Constitution Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order, 1956, The Schedule, Part X – Manipur, recognizes the various clans as separate individual ‘tribes’. This tribe modification order has exacerbated the identity crisis caused by the international boundaries that divide Kuki country.

In ethnological terms a ‘tribe’ denotes a people with distinct culture, tradition and language. By these criteria, in the state of Nagaland the Constitutional Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes classify the Ao, Angami, Lotha, and Sema, which all have a distinctive culture, customs, traditions and language are recognized as different tribes. By the same criteria, the Kuki clans, which share a common culture, customs and traditions, and dialects with the same root language need to be collectively identified as a single ‘tribe’, not separate ‘tribes’. The error of the tribe modification order of 1956 was rectified in the year 2003 by ‘The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Act, 2002, No. 10 of 2003, in Part X Manipur’, which reintroduced ‘Any Kuki Tribes’.

‘Any Kuki Tribes’ also helps to dispel the anomaly introduced by the Constitution Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order, 1956, which recognised Thadou, a sub-clan, to represent the various related sub-clans who speak the same dialect. The anomaly essentially relates to varying accounts of genealogical origins.

Efforts to bridge the gap of identity that prevailed from 1956 onwards has led to a rather frantic quest for alternatives to Kuki as a common identity. Nomenclatures, such as ‘Khul’, ‘Mizo’, ‘Tribal League’, ‘Tuhbem Som’, ‘Chikim’, ‘Zomi’, ‘Zo’, and ‘Eimi’ were experimented with, but to no lasting avail. The re-introduction of ‘Any Kuki Tribes’ provides an avenue to generate the much-needed unity among the people, particularly in reference to the dire political condition prevalent in present-day Manipur state. In specific regard to the existing predicament faced by the people, the present may prove to be an opportune moment to reconsider the credence of Kuki as a historically bona fide identity. With regard to Kuki’s historicity, for example, published in The Telegraph (17 Jan 1994), the Pooyas, the traditional literature of the Meitei people of Manipur testify that ‘two Kuki Chiefs named Kuki Ahongba and Kuki Achouba were allies to Nongba Lairen Pakhangba, the first historically recorded king of the Meithis [Meiteis], in the latter’s mobilisation for the throne in 33 AD’. When Kuki chiefs existed in prominent state in 33 AD (referred to above), it is a self-evident fact that the Kukis and the identity Kuki existed preceding that period. The identity Kuki is also endorsed by eminent personalities associated with the people in the past, such as Grierson (1904), Shakespear (1912), Lewin (1856), and Mackenzie (1884). Their accounts provide a rich cultural heritage of the Kuki people and their identity. Their narratives are also singular because none other exists that can legitimate an alternative identity. In other words, owing to its antiquity, Kuki’s appropriateness as a terminology for the collective identity of the people is self-evident. The identity is particularly important with regard to the crisis of identity in Manipur.

Kuki Indigenity with Specific Historical References

Historians such as Majumdar and Bhattasali (1930, 6-7) refer to the Kukis as the earliest people known to have lived in pre-history India, preceding ‘the “Dravidians” who now live in South India.’ Comparatively, the Aryans, who drove the Dravidians towards the south, arrived in the Indian sub-continent around BC 1500 (Thapar, 1966, 29). Apart from the refernce to the Pooyas dating back to 33 AD, Cheitharol Kumaba (Royal Chronicles of the Meitei Kings) records that in the year 186 Sakabda (AD 264) Meidungu Taothingmang, a Kuki, became king. This is supported by the statement of Prof JN Phukan (1992, 10) who writes:

If we were to accept Ptolemy’s ‘Tiladae’ as the ‘Kuki’ people, as identified by Gerini, the settlement of the Kuki in North-East India would go back to a very long time in the past. As Professor Gangumei Kabui thinks, ‘some Kuki tribes migrated to Manipur hills in the pre-historic times along with or after the Meitei advent in the Manipur valley' (History of Manipur, p24). This hypothesis will take us to the theory that the Kukis, for the matter, the Mizos, at least some of their tribes, had been living in North-East India since the prehistoric time, and therefore, their early home must be sought in the hills of Manipur and the nearby areas rather than in Central China or the Yang-tze valley.

In the second century (AD 90 – 168), Claudius Ptolemy, the geographer, identified the Kukis with Tiladai who are associated with Tilabharas, and places them ‘to the north of Maiandros, that is about the Garo Hills and Silhet’ (Gereni, 1909, 53). Stevenson’s (1932) reference to Kuki in relation to Ptolemy’s The Geography also bears critical significance to its period of existence. In the Rajmala or Annals of Tripura, Shiva is quoted to have fallen in love with a Kuki woman around AD 1512 (Dalton, 1872, 10).

The Wingspan of Ancestral Kuki Territory

According to Capt Pemberton (1853), the Kuki territory stretch from the southern borders of Manipur valley to the Northern limit of the province of Arracan. Meerwarth (1835) observed that the Kukis occupied the hill ranges south of the Naga Hill, to the east the tribes of upper Chindwin and the Chin Hills, on the south those living on the hill tracts of Chittagong, while on the west they are bounded by the plains of Sylhet and the hills of North Cachar. William Shaw (1929) stated that the Kukis live in a large area of hilly country bounded by the Angami Nagas of the Naga Hills District in the North, the Province of Burma in the East, Lushai Hills in the South and the districts of Cachar in the West. Dalton (1872) had noted that the Kukis are the neighbors of the Nagas in Assam and in contiguity with the Mugs of Arracan. The Hill country occupied by them extends from the valley of the Kolodyne, where they touch on the Khumis to the Northern Cachar and Manipur. Similarly, DN Majumdar (1944) also observed:

The Kuki Chiefs rule over the country between the Karnapuli river and its main tributary, the Tuilampai, on the west, and the Tyao and Koladyne boundary is roughly a line drawn east and west through the junction of the Mat and Kolodyne rivers and their northernly villages are founded on the borders of the Silchar district.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica (1962, Vol 13, 511) records, ‘Kuki, a name given to a group of tribes inhabiting both sides of the mountains dividing Assam and Bengal from Burma, south of the Namtaleik River.’

The wingspan of the Kuki territory as noted by Grierson (1904) is reproduced as follows:

The territory inhabited by the Kuki tribes extends from the Naga Hills in the north down into the Sandoway District of Burma in the south; from Myittha River in the east, almost to the Bay of Bengal in the west. It is almost entirely filled up by hills and mountain ridges, separated by deep valleys. A great chain of mountains suddenly rises from the plains of Eastern Bengal, about 220 miles north of Calcutta, and stretches eastward in a broadening mass of spurs and ridges, called successively the Garo, Khasia, and Naga Hills. The elevation of the highest point increases towards the east, from about 3,000 feet in the Garo Hills to 8,000 and 9,000 in the region of Manipur. This chain merges, in the east, into the spurs, which the Himalayas shoot out from the north of Assam towards the south. From here a great mass of mountain ridges starts southwards, enclosing the alluvial valley of Manipur, and thence spreads out westwards to the south of Sylhet. It then runs almost due north and south, with cross-ridges of smaller elevation, through the districts known as the Chin Hills, the Lushai Hills, Hill Tipperah, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Farther south the mountainous region continues, through the Arakan Hill tracts, and the Arakan Yoma, until it finally sinks into the sea at Cape Negrais, the total length of the range being some seven hundred miles. The greatest elevation is found to the north of Manipur. Thence it gradually diminishes towards the south. Where the ridge enters the north of Arakan it again rises, with summit upwards of 8,000 feet high, and here a mass of spurs is thrown off in all directions. Towards the south the western off-shoots diminish in length, leaving a track of alluvial land between them and the sea, while in the north the eastern off-shoots of the Arakan Yoma run down to the banks of the Irawaddy. This vast mountainous region, from the Jaintia and Naga Hills in the north, is the home of the Kuki tribes. We find them, besides, in the valley of Manipur, and, in small settlements, in the Cachar Plains and Sylhet.

Kuki chieftains reigned supreme in Zale’n-gam, the undivided ancestral lands, and their people lived in peace traversing its entire expanse like a grand eagle in flight.

A list of the Kuki People of Zale'n-gam in Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, Meghalaya and Nagaland

The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, Govt of India, dating back to 1951, lists a complete Tribes Schedules of the six states in Northeast India: Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura. In all these states the various Kuki clans are collectively recognised as ‘Any Kuki Tribes’ or ‘Kuki’ (Please see lists below). Latterly, exceptional to this collectivity, there was an unprecedented development regarding the state of Manipur: ‘The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) (Part C States) Order, 1951, The Schedule, Part XVI – Manipur, throughout the State’, was categorically deleted; the substitute set in place was ‘The Constitution Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order, 1956, The Schedule, Part X – Manipur.’ This Schedule, in contrast to those preceding it, listed each Kuki clan as separate tribes, thereby inducing a state of grave internal division. The divisive impact that lasted nearly 50 years was rectified by ‘The Gazette of India Extraordinary, Part II – Section I, New Delhi, January 8, 2003 (p 6), (f) in Part X. – Manipur, – ‘Any Kuki Tribes’. This Gazette restores the legitimacy of Kukis’ existence in Manipur in congruence with the status of the Kukis in the other five Northeast states.

Accordingly, a comprehensive listing of the Kuki people of Zale’n-gam is included in the following Schedules:

MANIPUR

The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) (Part C States) Order, 1951
The Schedule, Part XVI – Manipur, throughout the State

1. Any Kuki Tribe
2. Any Lushai Tribe
3. Any Naga Tribe

The Kuki people in Manipur are listed in alphabetical order:
Aimol, Anal, Changsen, Chiru, Chongloi, Chothe, Doungel, Guite, Gangte, Hangshing, Haokip, Hmar, Kharam, Koireng, Kolhen, Kom, Kipgen, Lamkang, Lenthang (Telien), Lhanghal, Lhangum, Lhouvum, Lhungdim, Lunkim, Maring, Mate, Milhem, Monshang, Muyon, Paite, Purum, Simte, Singsit, Sitlhou, Tarao, Touthang, Vaiphei and Zou.

The Gazette of India Extraordinary, Part II – Section I,
Ministry of Law and Justice, New Delhi, Wednesday, January 8, 2003

(f) in Part X. – Manipur, – (p 6) ‘Any Kuki Tribes’

(Similarly)

MANIPUR GAZETTE

Extraordinary, Published by Authority, Govt of Manipur
Secretariat: Law & Legislative Affairs Department
NOTIFICATION
Imphal, 14th April, 2003

(j) in Part X. – Manipur, – (p 6) ‘Any Kuki Tribes’

____________________ ____________________

MIZORAM

The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) (Union Territories) Order 1951 [Ministry of Law Notification No. C.O. 33, dated the 20th September 1951, Gazette of India, Extraordinary, 1951, Part II, section 3, Page 1198 G]
The Schedule, Part II – Mizoram, Throughout the Union Territory

1. Chakma
2. Dimasa
3. Garo
4. Hajong
5. Hmar
6. Khasi & Jaintia (including Khasi, synteng, or Pnar, War, Bhoi or Lyngngam)
7. Any Kuki Tribes, including:
i) Beite, Biete ii) Changsen iii) Chongloi iv) Doungel v) Gamalhou vi) Gangte vii) Guite viii) Hanneng ix) Haokip or Haupit x) Haolai xi) Hengma xii) Hongsungh xiii) Hrangkhwal or Rangkhol xiv) Jongbe xv) Khawchung xvi) Khawathlang or Khothalong xvii) Khelma xviii) Kholhou xix) Kipgen xx) Kuki xxi) Lengthang xxii) Lhangum xxiii) Lhoujem xxiv) Lhouvum xxv) Lupheng xxvi) Mangjel xxvii) Misao xxviii) Riang xxix) Sarihem xxx) Seinam xxxi) Singson xxxii) Sitlhou xxxiii) Sukte xxxiv) Thado xxxv) Thangngeu xxxvi) Urbuh xxxvii) Vaiphei 8. Lakher
9. Man (Tai speaking)
10. Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes
11. Mikir
12. Any Naga tribes
13. Pawi
14. Synteng

____________________ ____________________

TRIPURA

The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950 [Published in the Gazette of India Extraordinary No. 40, New Delhi, Wednesday, September 6, 1950; S.R.O. 510 read with Act. 81 of 1971 and Act of 1976]
The Schedule, Part – XV Tripura

1. Bhil
2. Bhutia
3. Charmal
4. Chakma
5. Garo
6. Halam
7. Jamatia
8. Knasia
9. Kuki, including the following sub-tribes:
i) Baite ii) Belalhut iii) Chhalya iv) Fua v) Hajango vi) Jangtei vii) Khoreng viii) Khephong ix) Kuntei x) Laifang xi) Lentei xii) Mizel xiii) Namte xiv) Paitu, Paite xv) Rangchan xvi) Rangkhol xvii) Thangluya 10. Lepcha
11. Lushai
12. Mag
13. Munde, Kaur
14. Noatia
15. Orang
16. Riang
17. Santal
18. Tripura, Tripuri, Trippera
(Published by MKTRDC, Church Road, Imphal)

____________________ ____________________

Assam

(Source: Scheduled Tribe Atlas of India, Census of India 2001, p 91, Govt of India, 2004)

In the autonomous districts:
1. Chakma
2. Dimasa, Kachari
3. Garo
4. Hajong
5. Hmar
6. Khasi, Jaintia, Synteng, Pnar, War Bhoi, Lyngngam
7. Any Kuki Tribes including:
(i) Biate or Biete (ii) Changsan (xx) Kuki (iii) Chongloi (xxi) Lengthang (iv) Doungel (xxii) Lhangum (v) Gamalhou (xxiii) Lhoujem (vi) Gangte (xxiv) Lhouvun (vii) Guite (xxv) Lupheng (viii) Hanneng (xxvi) Mangjel (ix) Haokip, Haupit (xxvii) Misao (x) Haolai (xxviii) Riang (xi) Hengna (xxix) Sairhem (xii) Hongsungh (xxx) Selnam (xiii) Hrangkhwal, Rangkhol (xxxi) Singson (xiv) Jongbe (xxxii) Sitlhou (xv) Khawchung (xxxiii) Sukte (xvi) Khawathlang, Khothalong (Hmar) (xxxiv) Thado (xvii) Khelma (xxxv) Thanggeu (xviii) Kholhou (xxxvi) Uibuh (xix) Kipgen (xxxvii) Vaiphei 8. Lakher
9. Man (Tai speaking)
10. Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes
11. Mikir
12. Any Naga tribes
13. Pawai
14. Syntheng

____________________ ____________________

Meghalaya

(Source: Scheduled Tribe Atlas of India, Census of India 2001, p 93, Govt of India, 2004)

1. Chakma
2. Dimasa, Kachari
3. Garo
4. Hajong
5. Hmar
6. Khasi, Jaintia, Synteng, Pnar, War; Bhoi, Lyngngam
7. Any Kuki Tribes including:
(i) Biate, Biete (xxi) Lenthang (ii) Changsan (xxii) Lhangum (iii) Chongloi (xxiii) Lhoujem (iv) Doungel (xxv) Lupheng (v) Gamalhou (xxvi) Mangjel (vi) Gangte (xxvii) Misao (xxiv) Lhouvun (vii) Guite (xxviii) Riang (viii) Hanneng (xxix) Sairhem (ix) Haokip, Haupit (xxx) Selnam (x) Haolai (xxxi) Singson (xi) Hengna (xxxii) Sitlhou (xii) Hangsing (xxxiii) Sukte (xiii) Hrangkhwal, Rangkhol (xxxiv) Thado (xiv) Jongbe (xxxv)Thangngen (xv) Khawchung (xxxvi) Uibuh (xvi) Khawathlang, Khothalong (xxxvii) Vaiphei (xvii) Khelma (xviii) Kholhou (xix) Kipgen (xx) Kuki 8. Lakher
9. Man (Tai speaking)
10. Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes
11. Mikir
12. Any Naga tribes
13. Pawi
14. Synteng Khotha
15. Boro-Kacharies (1987)
16. Koch
17. Raba, Rava

____________________ ____________________

Nagaland

(Source: Scheduled Tribe Atlas of India, Census of India 2001, p 93, Govt of India, 2004)
1. Naga
2. Kuki
3. Kachari
4. Mikir
5. Garo

____________________ ____________________

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE KUKI PEOPLE WHO TRACE THEIR ORIGIN TO THE MYTHICAL KHUL, A SUBTERRANEAN DWELLING UNDERSTOOD AND COMMONLY REFERRED TO AS A CAVE. THE RESPECTIVE ‘CLAN’ OR ‘GROUP’ OF THE KUKI PEOPLE IS LISTED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER:

The Aimols
(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Aimols originated from Khul. They are listed as Old Kukis. The Aimols have lived in close proximity with the Chothe, Purum and Maring Kukis. Their social, culture and customs and lifestyle are similar to the Chothe’s. Like their other Kuki brethren, the Aimols also use the Goshem, a musical instrument. The Aimols fought bravely in the Kuki Rising, 1917-1919 and also in the Second Kuki War of Independence, 1942-1945, to defend Kuki Zale’n-gam. Their participation in the Kut celebrations is a significant contribution to Kuki custom and culture. The Jansen, Mahau, Lutar and Unapal of the Chandel district are close to Aimols.

The Anals

(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Anals are one of the Kuki groups that originated from Khul (cave). The Anals are a popular Kuki clan. They form a significant part of the oldest Kuki people, and continue to constitute an integral part of the Kuki fold.

The Anals do not eat the meat of Sasan (deer) like their Lushei Kuki cousins. This is an important indicator of the closeness between the Anals and the Lusheis. The Anals are also known as Pakan. The British identified the Anals as the ‘Old Kukis’. The Anals came from Southwest Manipur and settled at Pheljol village, within Zale’n-gam. The present inhabitants of Pheljol did not set up village. It was originally settled and named by the Anals. The Anals migrated from Pheljol in two groups: one group settled at Anal Kholen, Chandel District, the other group settled at Naphou.

The Anals are legendary warriors. In pre-history, the Anals of Naphou constantly waged war against the Moirang King. They also participated very bravely in the Kuki Rising, 1917-19 and in the Second Kuki War of Independence, 1942-45. They fought against the British to preserve the sovereignty Zale’n-gam. They also joined the Indian National Warriors (INA) in great numbers.

The Baites (Beite)

(As narrated by Pu Thonglet Baite) The Baites originated from Khul. They are a notable Kuki clan. Pu Suantak is regarded as the progenitor of the Suantak. Pu Suantak was the great chief of Khovaiphei. When his descendants grew numerous, Pu Suantak left Khovaiphei to set up another village by the name of Phaija. He also established another village called Bongnoi, from which was formed another village called Nathel. Nathel was a grand and prosperous village and from there the Baites spread out to different places in Zale’n-gam and into other parts. Today, the Baites are in Assam where they follow a variation of the Baite dialect and are called Beite. However, the Beite of Assam and the Baites of Manipur are one and the same people.

The Baites have a rich repertory of legends. Among them the story of Hensei and Hanneh, Pi Vungneng and Pu Kondem Baite deserves mention:
Hensei and Hanneh are two brothers. They netted a white Dah (big gong) from the river called Gun (Gundung or Imphal River) while fishing. The Dah was owned by the demons. The demons came after the Dah by following the sound, wherever it was struck. The Dah is a treasured cultural item for the Baites. Pi Vungneng was a very beautiful Baite maiden. She used to have extraordinary dreams. Pu Mangvung married Pi Vungneng. They had many offspring, resulting in a tremendous increase of the Mangvung population. Pi Vungveng wore Long chang (a kind of nut that can serve as an ornament) on her braided hair. Her daughters followed the tradition of wearing Long chang on their hair. Today, the Baite women keep up this tradition of wearing Long chang. It has also become popular among the Mangvung Haokip women.

Kondem Baite was a prominent chief. He was a great leader of Zale’n-gam and served in the war against the British during the First Kuki War of Independent, 1917-1919. After the war, he was jailed at Tuanggyi Jail in Burma for three years, under torturous conditions. Among the Kukis, the Baites were one of the most devoted fighters for the defence of Zale’n-gam.

Pu Thangchung Baite, Chief of Tengnoupal Chalson was a renowned marksman. He fought valiantly in the Kuki Rising, 1917-1919. The Baites live at the following areas within Zale’n-gam: L.Sareikhong, Lamlai Chingphei, Mongbung, Mongneljang, Toljang, Ch. Tengnoupal, Moreh, Maipi, Dongjang, Khengjang, Khomunnom, etc. There are many Beite villages in Assam too. One of the oldest known villages of the Baites was Sadih (Sachih), in Eastern Zale’n-gam (Burma).

The Chirus

(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Chirus originated from Khul. In order to escape from Khul, the Chirus let fly Phulim (small insects) to distract the tiger that was guarding the exit. While the tiger was distracted by the phulim, the Chirus seized the moment and made good their escape. This incident is remembered as Pulim, meaning ‘The great escape’, and they came to be known as Pulum. As the years went by, Pulum changed to Purum, and Purum changed to Chiru. The Chirus are close to the Chothe, Purum and the Komrem, as well as to the Lushei and Hmar.

General Thangal: Among the Chirus there was a great man called Pu Thangal. His father died when he was only a child and so was raised by his mother. Pu Thangal was a famed and legendary warrior hero. He was renowned for his bravery and for his excellent skill at forming grand military strategies. He was promoted to the rank of General in warriors of the king of Manipur. He fought against the British for the independence of Manipur. General Thangal was arrested battle and hanged by the British. General Thangal is remembered as a great martyr of Manipur. In his honour a premium part of the Imphal bazaar is named the Thangal Bazaar.

As a part of the Chiru ‘cultural’ history, it seems appropriate to indulge briefly in an anecdote: While still settled in East Zale’n-gam (i.e. present day Burma) Chiru happened to be involved in stealing some salt from the Purums. Landing themselves into a mess, they asked Chothe to mediate. The matter became worse when Chothe asked Chiru to swear innocence by hah (a form of oath taking). At this, Chiru had no choice but to plead guilty and sought forgiveness. Chothe then declared, ‘because you had earlier denied your guilt, from now on you shall be named Chiru’ (or Chigu, which literally translated means salt-thief).

Chongloi and Hangshing

(As narrated by Pu Laljakhup Chongloi, Khaibung, Nagaland) The Chongloi and Hangshings originated from Khul along with Pu Chongthu and his party. They are one the great clans of the Kukis. Chongloi and Hangshing represents Chongloi and Hangsing, the younger brothers of Thalhun. The sons of Thalhun are Haokip, Kipgen and Thadou. The Chongloi and Hangshings’ elder brother Thalhun married while they were all living at Lhungjang village. Thahlhun’s wife died prematurely. Consequently, the Chongloi and Hangshings helped to raise their nephews Haokip and Kipgen. Chongloi and Hangsing maintained close relationships after leaving Lhungjang village. Their descendants multiplied and spread in every nook and corner of Zale’n-gam.

Chongloi’s descendants set up Jangnoi village in upper Chindwin (Burma) in Zale’n-gam. The name of the village, Jangnoi, has been preserved for generations. It is also used to name a village in the Sadar Hills, Manipur.

Hangsing’s descendants also established two villages, namely Khovang and Khotin. Both of the villages prospered. Khovong was in the Tiddim Road. A beautiful ballad has been composed in its memory:

Kakho pacham chie chei-je,
Vongkho pacham chie chie-je;
Jo-pan changsel asutna,
Vongkho (Khovong) pacham chie chei-je.
Free translation

My village Khovong is beautiful,
My village where my father killed mithuns
Is beautiful indeed.

The Chongloi and Hangshings have multiplied in great numbers and have set up many new villages where they fully follow their ancient customs and traditions.

Folklore:

Once upon a time, there was a Chongloi and Hangshing daughter named Japhal. Japhal was exceedingly beautiful, and her fame spread far and wide. One day while working in the fields with her mother, Japhal was thirsty and so wanted to go to a stream to drink some water.

The stream flowed along the Molphei hill, the abode of the Molphei deities. Therefore, Japhal’s mother did not want her to go alone. She wanted to go with Japhal and so told her to wait until the work at the field was done.

Meanwhile, Japhal was getting more and more thirsty. Overcome and having asked mother a second time but not getting a response, she went off to the stream on her own.

When mother finished work, she looked for Japhal to go to the stream. But alas, Japhal was nowhere to be found! Searching everywhere in vain until nightfall, the grief stricken mother wept and wept, and she fell asleep.

In a dream that night, the deities of Molphei revealed themselves to Japhal’s mother. They said to her that Japhal had been taken to be a Molphei bride. In return, the deities gave Japhal’s mother an Indoi (a magical box made of woven bamboo holding spells and charms).

The Indoi brought the Chongloi and Hangshings great prosperity and good health. Whenever the Chongloi and Hangshings held a celebration, the Molphei deities would visit them in the form of Gohong (heavy rainfall).

Noticing the health and prosperity that Indoi brought to the Chongloi and Hangshings, other Kukis also began to acquire one. In due course, Indoi gained the status of a totem and became an item of worship, in every Kuki household. The Chongloi and Hangshings used to take oath in the following fashion: Chongloi ‘Tah Chapa, Chongloi Tupa, Lutsong Chapa Kahi.’ Hangsing ‘Tah Chapa, Hangshing Tupa, Songthang Chapa Kahi.’

The Chongloi and Hangshings have spread far and wide in Zale’n-gam. Many of them are settled among the other Kuki clans. They are progressive and have led the way in the sphere of education and development, among the Kukis.

Vomhel and Kapja were two exceptional young men among the Chongloi and Hangshings. Vomhel was a strong man who performed many feats of glory. He was a champion wrestler and during his lifetime excelled in various competitions held in Zale’n-gam. Kapja, besides being endowed with great physical strength, was gifted with the special ability to see and communicate with the spirits. He befriended the spirits residing on Thingbung range. Kapza attended the ceremonies and social functions of his friends, the spirits of Thingbung range, which greatly amazed his people.

At present, the Chongloi and Hangshings are settled in the following villages of Zale’n-gam: Jangnoi, Thingphai, Mongken, Twidim, Khengjang, Chaljang, Napphou, Janglenphai, Khomunnom, Tingpibung, Haijang, Taphou, Vakotphai, Khunkho, Kangchup-Chingkhong, etc., in Manipur state. They are also settled in many areas of North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong in Assam, as well as in Nagaland, and in Burma.

During the Kuki Rising, 1917-1919 the Chongloi and Hangshings under the leadership of their great chiefs fiercely defended the Sadar Hills sector. The names of the chiefs are as follows: Pu Lenpu Hangsing, chief of Vongjang; Pu Ngulkhojam Chongloi, chief of Maval; Pu Amjapao Chongloi, chief of Kholen; Pu Nguljalhun Chongloi, chief of Thingphai; Pu Hangsing, chief of Tingpibung.

The Chothes

(As narrated by Rev Reanghang Chothe) The Chothes originated from Khul. They constitute one of the oldest of the Kuki people. The British listed the Chothes as Old Kuki. According to Kuki mythology, a tiger obstructed the exit of the Chothes from Khul. It devoured everyone single person that tried to leave the cave. Therefore, they set upon a devise to elude the tiger by using the Ampi pon / Thangnang pon (a shawl with intricate and mesmeric pattern). The tiger compared the patterns of the shawl with its own stripes, and finding its stripe inferior, no longer dared to kill them. Thereafter, the Chothes emerged safely from the cave. The first man to pass through Khul was deemed a great and courageous victor. He came to be known as Ralngam (Galngam), whose valiant exploits is told in all Kuki folk tales till today.

After emerging from the Khul around BC 200, the Chothes settled at different parts of Zale’n-gam. They migrated from Western Zale’n-gam to Central Zale’n-gam, in the hills of present day Manipur. Around BC 90 to BC 30, Chothe Thangvan Pakhangba a great Chothe chief was crowned at King in Moirang, Manipur. Apart from being known as Thangvai Pakhangba, pre-history of Moirang also records Chothe and uses his name as Ivang Puri Lai Thingri Nachouba. In modern history, as written by TC Das in The Purums: An Old Kuki Tribe of Manipur, published in 1045 at Calcutta University, Chothe is also referred to as Purums. In the book Das highlights the Purums’ Kuki identity. McCulloch, the Political Agent of Manipur, describes the Chothes as Kukis. The Chothes and Aihang Haokips fought together against the British, during the Kuki Rising, 1917-1919. They fought to protect Zale’n-gam their land, and the ideals of freedom they cherish. To preserve the same ideals, the Chothes fought the British again in the Second Kuki war of Independence, during WW II.

There are about fifteen Purum Chothe villages. It is astonishing that such a great Kuki clan whose history is traced back to the BC era should number so little today. The explanation is as follows: There has been a change in the Chothe identity through process of mass assimilation, mainly between the Meitei and the Nagas:

The Chothes were assimilated in large numbers into the valley Meitei community of Manipur. This took place during the pre-Hindu period. Today, they are among the present day inhabitants of Kakching, Moirang, Nambol phoijang, Keishamthong (Kabui and Meitei), Langmaiching (Nongmaijing), Andro, Thoubal, Leimakhong, etc.

The Purum Chothes were assimilated between the Inpui Mei (Inpi) among the Rongmeis and Purul among the Nagas (Purul being a corrupt form of Purum).

The Doungels

(As narrated by Pu Hemkholun Doungel) The Doungels are a Khulkon people, which mean they originated from Khul. The Doungels are regarded a respectable clan. In order of genealogy, Doungel is the younger brother of Guite.

In Zale’n-gam, the Doungels settled in a place called Aisan. Up to the time of the chief Pu Doungel Chengjapao, they ruled over Aisan. Aisan encompasses a vast territory. It spread from the present day Manipur’s Ukhrul District-Chingai sub-division to Nagaland’s Pochuri Region. They ruled over the Aisan up until the Kuki Rising, 1917-1919. The Tangkhuls and the Pochuri Nagas paid Se-le-kai (taxes) and Samal le changseo (tributes) to the Aisan chief. It was during the reign of Pu Doungel Chengjapao that Aisan’s glory reached its zenith and was most powerful in all of Zale’n-gam. The British India government acknowledged the paramountcy of the Aisan chief among the Kukis and proclaimed Pu Doungel Chengjapao, the Kuki Rajah (Kuki King).

During the Kuki Rising, 1917-19, Pu Guite, the elder brother of Pu Doungel, was settled in Eastern Zale’n-gam. The epicentre of the conflict was in Central Zale’n-gam, the domain of Pu Doungel Chengjapao. Therefore, it was by virtue of the location and activities during the war in Zale’n-gam, that Pu Doungel Chengjapao was given charge of the Supreme Commander of the Kuki force. Pu Chengjapao demonstrated tremendous courage and distinguished himself by the quality of leadership he provided to the Kuki people.

Following a prolonged and bitter struggle, the Kuki resistance was finally broken in the third year of the war. Many chiefs and leaders were apprehended and imprisoned for several years. Pu Doungel Chengjapao, being Commander in Chief of the war was held in prison for an extra year than his compatriots. Following the defeat of the Kukis, the British imperialist completely burnt and destroyed Aisan. This was done as a mark of crushing the symbol of Kuki nationalism.

The sub-clans of the Doungels include the Haolais, Sahum, Lotjems and Tubois. The Doungels are settled in Aisan, Molkon, Chaljang, Bunglung, K. Mollen, Thingsat, Chingphei and Bungsang in present day Nagaland. They are also settled in North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong in present day Assam.

The Gangtes

(As narrated by Pu Anton Gangte) The Gangtes originated from Khul. In the old days, the Gangtes lived in Ganggam, Zale’n-gam where they prospered.

According to folklore, the Gangtes worshipped the serpent. Therefore, the serpent blessed the Gangtes and made them numerous in numbers, with many strong and healthy young men and beautiful young women. An annual post-harvest festivity was held in honour of the serpent, in the course of which it would emerge from its den to grace the occasion.

In the passage of time, indulged in their prosperity the Gangtes became complacent and neglected their worship of the serpent. The irate serpent threatened to follow them wherever they might choose to move. Having given up the worship of the serpent, the Gangtes turned to worship the sun hoping it would bring them better fortune, progress and prosperity. In order to see the sun more closely and to facilitate its worship, they began to move towards the east, as they noticed that the sun rose from that direction. Contrary to their hopes and belief of getting closer to the sun, they discovered the huge ocean span before them. Not being able to precede any further, but still determined they decided to head west in the hope of getting close to the sun where it set. True to it’s warning the serpent followed them in their journeys both to the east and to the west, wreaking destruction and death over them to the point of their extinction. It is said that the serpent distorted their intellect and senses so that they were incapable of facing adversities or taking any kind of logical action. This had a devastating effect on the Gangte population - large numbers of them died in many different incidents that followed. Some of those are related here as follows:

While living at Saitol village, a rogue elephant entered their settlement. In normal circumstances they would have chased it with proper weapons, but under the influence of the serpent they attacked the elephant with knotted cloth. Eventually the elephant was brought down, but the settlement was left with scores of trampled victims.

On one occasion the wife of the chief injured herself with an axe. At this the whole community was driven into a rage of stamping the sharp edge of the axe, in an attempt to blunt it. This incident left countless numbers of casualties. Once, a thirty-arm length pine tree was being felled. It was to be obtained in one piece to serve as the main beam for the chief’s house. In order to prevent the tree from snapping the men were made to line up in a row to break the fall of the tree with their bare shoulders. That incident led to yet another disaster, causing a high casualty.

During the war with the Suhte and Poi people, they were subject to mass hypnotism: they dived off a high cliff to swim in the thick mist below.

Many such stories abound among the Gangtes. They reflect their sense of humour and true character of spirit in the face of adversity. The fable of the angry serpent god is faintly and reluctantly recalled as a cause of the many misfortunes they have experienced, or perhaps are still experiencing even at the present time. Had their numbers not dwindled, for one reason or another, the Gangtes would have been one of the most numerous and dominant clan among the Kukis.

Despite their small population, the Gangtes are the most committed torchbearers among the Kukis. Late Pu Demkhoseh Gangte was a pioneering leader in the efforts to re-establish the glory of Zale’n-gam, during the Kuki-Mizo movement in the 1960s. The Flag of the Kuki National Assembly (KNA) was designed and introduced by Pu Haokholal Thangjom. In the face of pressure from various corners, many of them have maintained an exemplary sense of commitment and dedication to Kuki unity.

The main settlements of the Gangtes in Zale’n-gam is as follows: Longpi, Teikhang, Leikot, Phailen, Phaijang, Pangen, Santing, Phaikholum, Chengkonpang, Khanpi, Trigmun, Vantungbung, Bunglon, and Khousabung.

The Guites

(As narrated by Pu Hembul Guite) The Guites originated from Khul. In the Songthu genealogical line, Guite is the eldest. Therefore, among the Kuki clans the Guites are regarded the most senior.

According to folklore, Guite was born of Nigui (the rays of the Sun), and thus the name follows Nigui: Guite. Many of the Guite traditional folksongs bear reference to ‘Sons of the Sun’s rays’ or ‘Sons of the Sun’. The mystical birth of Guite is narrated as follows:

After conceiving, Guite’s mother had a series of very strange dreams.

In one such dream, the rays of the early Sun shone brightly upon a holthing (a tree, particularly good for timber) just below her kitchen garden. The rays penetrated the hollow of the holthing, as the rays of a rainbow would. Upon learning of this dream, Guite’s father looked up the hollow of the tree to find an egg-sized, smooth and round Salung (a mystic stone, which can reproduce and grow and is believed to bring prosperity to the beholder).

From that day on, Guite’s father is said to have incredibly good fortunes that he began to worship the Salung (Legend has it that this practice of Salung worship thus originated).

In another dream of Guite’s mother, the soft rays of the early sun shone on the Salung that was kept on the rice-basket, whereupon it appeared luminous. She then saw a baby born from the Salung and heard it cry. She rose to hold the baby but still did not come out of her slumber.

One night Guite’s mother dreamt that she grew as a gourd vine. The growth was so good that it filled the house. The fruit from it appeared as good as an oil shell, smooth and healthy. The Sun’s rays shone through a gap from between the clouds and focussed upon a spot on the ground, which burst out to reveal a newborn baby.

In yet another dream, Guite’s mother saw a bright and radiant object falling from the sun. It was like a meteor and it landed upon her. She shrieked in fear but did not awake, as the legend goes.

After having these strange series of dreams, she gave birth to a son. Feeling blessed by the Sun and the Moon and her son conceived by the rays, the child was named Guite, derived from Nigui.

(It is a Kuki custom to name an offspring beginning with the last syllable of the person whom the child is being named after. The person is normally the grandfather in the case of a male child, and a grandmother in the case of a female child. It is also customary to name a child after a dear one.)

Guite’s father died prematurely and so he and his mother moved to Aisan to stay at the chief house. According to Kuki custom, Guite being the elder of the lineage, the people of Aisan approached him and his mother to accept the responsibility of the ‘house’, in other words, to accept the responsibility of being head of the family. Therefore, in keeping with the custom, Guite and his mother were asked to receive sating (a portion of meat taken from the spine of an animal, given by a younger sibling to the eldest of the family - a symbolic gesture indicating who is the eldest).

Guite and his mother refused to accept the responsibility, claiming as an orphan and a widow they were not in a position to. However, unaware they ate a meal consisting of the meat from Sating, cooked with ginger. Consequently, thereafter, Guite was obligated to accept the responsibility of being head of the lineage. Birthright is not considered alterable by any means, including orphanage or widowhood. Guite was thus accorded the position of head of the Kukis. Today, the Doungels give Sating as well as Salu (animal’s head) to the house of Guite. Salu literally represents headship, and so it is given to the Guite’s as head of the family.

In relations to headship, it is fitting to mention that by an unusual turn of events the Guites in central Zale’n-gam (i.e. present day Churachandpur district) have put themselves as head of the Paites only, rather than the head of Kukis that have originated from Khul. This has contributed to the confusion over the identity of the Kuki people.

The Guites are found in the East, West, North and South of Zale’n-gam. They are also found in the present day North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong in Assam.

The Haokips

(As recorded by The Haokip Inpite Insung Kiloikhom - HIIK) The Haokips originated from Khul. They are one of the great Kuki sub-clans and are numerous in population. They are mostly settled in Central and Eastern Zale’n-gam. The villages under their major chiefs are as follows: Lonpi, Longya, Henglep, Loikhai, Phoilen, Songpi, Tuitawng, Laijang, Loibol, Saitu, Tingkai, Goboh, Joujang, Khotuh, Phailengjang, Tuisom, Sita, Molnom, Phaisat, Maokot, Chassad and many others. The territory of the Chassad Chief was the largest of them all, although the other Haokips chiefs also owned vast tracks of land.

Thalhun married Nemdim, the daughter of the chief of Lajang. Nemdim gave birth to male twins. As Chongloi and Hangsing took their older brother Thalhun to Lhungjang Village before the birth of the twins, there was nobody left to name the newborn babies. Therefore, it was decided that the twins would be named after their maternal uncles, and were called Chonghao-Haokip and Chongkip-Kipgen. In the meantime, at Lhungjang village Thalhun married a second time. This time he was married to Neinem, and Nemnei gave birth to a son.

Haokip, Kipgen and their mother lived in Lajang village. Being twins, they were very similar in physical strength and look, and were in constant rivalry. At the time of birth, apparently it was not made entirely clear as to which of the two brothers was the elder. The matter not properly reconciled, there was rivalry regarding who was senior. In the effort to resolve the issue, the two brothers agreed that they would hold a contest and the winner would earn the birthright of seniority. They competed at high jump, shot put, wrestling, etc., and Haokip is said to have always been the winner. However, the issue of seniority remained unresolved. Ultimately, the two brothers decided they would sit on the Kemchon (a raised wooden platform) and wait for their mother to call them, and the person whom the mother called first was to be the elder. When it was suppertime, their mother called out, ‘Haokip, Kipgen come and eat your dinner’. Haokip happily went saying, ‘I told you so!’ and ate his dinner. But Kipgen was crestfallen and went away to their father in Lhungjang village.

Following the death of their mother in Lajang village, Haokip felt that his brother Kipgen should bury her. Therefore, Haokip asked Kipgen to perform the elder son’s role in the funeral. Kipgen declined the invitation and instead sent word: ‘One, who has a son, let her son bury; and one who has a mother, let him bury his mother.’ After receiving this reply, Haokip took charge of the funeral in the traditional manner. He killed a ram to be served on the occasion, in accordance with the Kuki custom. Following the funeral rites, to set things right, Haokip spread the news that Kipgen is his elder brother. However, there was no response from Kipgen. Neither has Kipgen, since, shown the initiative to carry out his responsibilities as the elder. It is perhaps for these reasons that on 19th December 1997, the Haokips finally decided to give Sating to the Doungels, as a sign of acknowledging an elder brother. (For the Haokips the event of giving Sating to the Doungels is a way of establishing that they are of the younger lineage. Having made the effort on several occasions to offer the birthright of seniority to the Kipgens but not receiving any positive response, the Haokips have taken the appropriate alternative of recognising Doungel as the rightful older brother.)

Haokip continued to live at Lajang village. His descendants multiplied in great numbers. From Lajang village, the descendants of Haokip spread far and wide in Zale’n-gam. The Head of the Haokips reigned as the great chief of Chassad. The Chassad Chiefs remained in authority in their land of Zale’n-gam until the advent of the British colonialist, in the early part of the twentieth-century.

Chassad is synonymous with Haokip. A focus on the glorious reign of the Chassad kingdom is representative of the other great Kuki kingdoms that flourished at the same time, in other parts of Zale’n-gam.

The Chassad kingdom

(As narrated by Pu Sng. Haokip and Pu Jangmang Haokip) The eldest of the Haokip brothers ruled the Chassad kingdom. His kingdom extended over the central and southern parts of the Ukhrul District of present day India, as well as other areas of Zale’n-gam such as the upper Chindwin region in present day Burma. The Chassad Chief’s authority also stretched over the regions his younger Haokip brothers ruled, but he gave them autonomy over their own domains. The Chassad Chief was the highest court of appeal among the Haokips. His advisors and ministers (Semang Pachong) helped him to exercise authority in the Chassad council. His councillors consisted of senior clan members, who efficiently administered the unwritten laws of the Kukis. Whenever a case was not solved among the Haokip sub-clans, it was brought to the court of the Chassad Chief, where it would be settled. The wise elders and councillors helped to solve the cases without discrimination and a total exercise of truth and fairness, befitting the customary laws of the Kukis.

The Chassad Chief levied an annual tax on the Naga people living within his domain. The rate of tax was paid in the form of one rupee coin per house. Each of the villages also paid an annual village tax. The payment was in the form of one animal and a certain amount of paddy, per village. The Chief’s councillors administered the collection of taxes, accompanied by the Chassad overlords. Whenever the Chief went on tour, the people of the village carried him on a tollai (palanquin). The village people always welcomed him warmly. They killed pigs in his honour and served the best liquor especially reserved for him. The Chief, in turn solved the disputes amongst them and administered justice. Apart from providing the Tangkhul Nagas protection, the Chassad Chief also ensured that there was no inter-village warfare among them. For generations the Chassad Chiefs ruled over the Chassad kingdom with justice and fairness, and there was peace and harmony in the land.

The Chassad Chiefs maintained warriors of able-bodied men to protect the land and its people. All the brave Haokip youths served in the Chief’s warriors. The youth received special training in warfare, taught by their leaders in Sawm and Lawm (the youth halls). The Chassad Warriors maintained a full compliment of guns, gunpowder and ammunitions that they manufactured themselves. In the Kuki Rising 1917-1919, the Eastern Sector of Zale’n-gam was supplied arms and ammunition mostly from Chassad.

Several departments were set up to run the household establishment of the Chassad Chief. They are as follows:

The Hunting party department
The youth of Chassad village proper and the Tangkhul Naga youth shared the task of hunting animals. They supplied meat regularly to the Chief’s kitchen.
The Fishing department
Fishing was entrusted to the Tangkhul villages of Bongpa and Chahong. Fish was supplied on a regular basis, including during the flooding season.
The Agriculture and fuel gathering department
The Phenge Tangkhul Nagas were assigned the responsibility of agriculture and fuel gathering. They produced plenty of rice, enough to eat and for brewing liquor as well.
The Brewery
The Sampui Tangkhul Nagas was responsible for the brewery. They made rice beer, which was always available in plenty
The Famed Kitchen of the Chassad Chief
The Chassad Chief’s kitchen was famed for its size and the incessant activity of meal preparations that went on. Altogether, there were seven hearths for cooking. The fire in the hearths was continuously stoked up. The flow of water from the kitchen and bathrooms was continuous. As a result, a community of crabs thrived where the wastewater collected beneath the kitchen floor. The saying: Shi-ai-akaileu ve refers to the grandeur of the kitchen, symbolised by the ‘community of crabs’, reflecting the height of the Chassad Chief’s glory.

So great was the Chassad Chief’s household that the chefs had little time for break, and the Tucha Bechas (customary helpers) had no time to attend to their personal needs, such as tending their own fields. The brewers were also constantly engaged. They produced various types of rice beer, which were served in large quantities to councillors and guests, adding to the conviviality of social occasions.

A Tale of the Chief of Chassad and the Chief Meitei of Manipur
The Chassad people once travelled with their women and children through the valley of Manipur (the Meitei kingdom). The Meitei king sent his sepoys and seized the beautiful daughter of the Chassad Chief, from among the group of people. The Chassad men folk refrained from retaliating, as helpless women and children could be hurt. Instead they offered a bargain to the Meitei Chief and said, ‘We will give you what you want, but you must return our daughter to us.’ The Meitei Chief responded by saying that he did not want money or gold, but wanted the head of the king of Ava (Burma).

The Chief of Manipur being defeated in battle by the king of Ava had been seething with rage and wanted to be avenged. The subsequent events show that the Chassad people were very brave, coming to the aid of the Meitei Chief. Thanglet, a prince of Chassad, had a reputation of being faster and stronger than the tiger. He agreed to set out to sever the head of the king of Ava and give it to the Chief of Manipur, in return for the daughter of the Chassad Chief. Thanglet set to plan. He instructed the men that he would go into the fortress of Ava, behead the king and escape with the head shouting Ku Ku Ku. The man outside the fortress should repeat the same sound Ku Ku Ku, which was to be repeated in turn by the others in line right up to the last man, waiting in the far hills. This would give the impression to the guards of the fortress that judging by the sound trailing into the hills, the man has run away at great speed disappearing into the hills. Accordingly, to carry out this effect, Thanglet positioned his men in a row, starting by the walls of the Ava fortress and into the hills.

As planned, Thanglet entered the king’s house. After engaging in a clash of swords, Thanglet beheaded the King. He then carried the head, leapt over the walls of the fortress and ran shouting Ku Ku Ku. The plan was carried out with precision and the sound Ku Ku Ku reverberating through the hills fooled the sepoys of the Ava King. They believed that the swift attackers were already far out of reach, and decided not to pursue.

According to the agreement, the Chassad Chief presented the head of the Ava king to the Meitei Chief. In return, the Meitei Chief released the Chassad Chief’s daughter. Following this incident, the Meitei people and the Chassad Kukis maintained good relations.

The Chassad Kukis also helped the Meitei Chief in the war against the Kamhao chief of the Northern Chin hills. Thenceforth, the Meitei king always offered a royal seat to the Chassad Chief, whenever he visited Imphal. In the year 1949, when the Meitei Chief was being pressurised by the Indian Government to sign the ‘Manipur Merger Agreement’, the Chassad Chief sent two hundred and fifty Kuki sepoys to support the Meitei king.

The Hmars

(As narrated by Pu Ngulkhojang Hmar) The Hmars originated from Khul. They constitute one of the prominent groups among the Kukis. True to their shared origin with the rest of the Kukis, the Hmars have named their newly formed district in Mizoram the Sinlung Autonomous District. Sinlung means Khul, i.e. cave.

The settlements of the Hmars have been in close proximity with the Singsons. There has been inter-marriage between the Hmars and Singsons and are closely connected to each other. The Hmars are also referred to as Kholjang (Khi-village, hang-south or below) because their settlements were to the south of the Singsong villages.

The British officials such as Hudson, McCulloch and Sir Johnstone recorded the Hmars as Kukis. The reference made by these scholars regarding the Kuki migration north into Manipur, in the 18th Century when driven out by the Lusheis in Mizoram, applies to the Hmars. The Singsons intervened against the Lusheis and prevented further atrocities to be committed on the Hmars. Today, the Hmars live in peace with their Kuki brethren in Zale’n-gam, in present day Manipur.

A common feature that also binds the Kuki people is Manmasi. Manmasi, i.e. Manasseh is the second son of Joseph, the youngest son of Jacob (Israel). The Kukis are amongst those who claim to be one of the ten lost tribes of Israel, specifically the descendants of Manasseh/Manmasi. In Hmar Folktales (1995) Prof La Dena writes, ‘At this time there was a voice from above saying, “Manmasipa, cut down the hanging leaf above you with your sword”. As Hrangchal did so, the huge trunk of the elephant was cut off.’

The Kipgens

(As narrated by Pu Lunjapao Kanjang village) The Kipgens originated from Khul. They are one of the great sub-clans of Kukis. Kipgen is the twin brother of Haokip. The first Kipgen village was called Khogalpa or Khovalpa, located between the villages Lazang and Lhunjang. The Kipgens multiplied in great numbers and set up new villages in all parts of Zale’n-gam.

The Kipgens are patriotic. They fought bravely in the Kuki Rising 1917-1919 and also in Second Kuki War of Independence 1942-1945, to protect the sovereignty of Zale’n-gam. The Kipgens are pioneers in the field of education among the Kukis. Among the Kukis, the first Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer in independent India is a Kipgen. The Kipgens are one of the most advanced clans in the modern era.

The Kipgens spread out from their original village Khogalpa and set up many villages such as Leikot, Molnoi, Tujang, Phaijang, Boljang, Jangmol, Chaljang, Tujang-Vaichong, Haipi, Hengbung, Kumbi-Pukhri, Munpi, Bongbal in Central Zale’n-gam (in present day India) and also, Leivomjang, Teijang, Selsi, etc., in Eastern Zale’n-gam (in present day Burma).

The Kolhen

(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Kolhens originated from Khul Kukis. They form a major part of the Kuki fold. According to traditional mythology, the ancestors of the Kolhens, a man and woman, leapt out of Khurpui (the cave) along with a basket and a spear, and dwelt at Talching. The couple conceived a son and a daughter and named them Nairung and Shaithatpal, respectively. Their direct descendants are among the Kolhen.

Among the Kolhens, the chiefship is not hereditary. At the death of the chief, if his sons are unfit, the successor is normally chosen from other members of his family, for example, his brother’s line. The appointment of a new chief is celebrated with a feast, in which the entire community takes part. A pig is killed for the occasion that is provided by the new chief. The young men and women make merry with lots of dancing and singing.

The Kolhen are divided into twelve families. They are divided into two groups. Exogamy is prohibited. The Kolhen’s Keidun festival is in the month of April. During the first day of the festival called Karamuidai or Changritakhoi, the young men bring in two long creepers.

The Kolhen observe Chamershi for two days in the middle of the monsoon, either in July or August. A pig and a rooster are sacrificed in the chief’s house, which is eaten only by the men. The Kolhen celebrates a festival called Ratek, in the middle of August. On this occasion, the Thempu (priest) sacrifices a pig and a dog outside the village, facing the Koubru hill.

The Koms

(As narrated by Pu Songchung Kom) The Koms originated from Khul, similar to their Kuki brethren. They are a prominent clan among the Kukis. Their settlements were stately and grand, mainly along the banks of the river Chindwin in Zale’n-gam. The various Kom people speak a common dialect. They lived peacefully together before being scattered following the Tak Ava war. The British classified the Koms as old Kukis.

The Koms are a cultured and sophisticated clan. They exude humility and are generally friendly towards their fellow beings. A Kom household is marked by their meticulousness: they are tidy and organised. Their sense of orderliness is also reflected in the contribution they have made to the Kuki culture. For example, the Koms have designed the most popular traditional Kuki shawls. They are the Thangnang Po’n and Saipi Khup. The pattern for the Thangnang is taken from the white python, and the Saipi Khup from the black python. In the Kom dialect, the men’s shawl Saipikhup is called Pase po’n; the women wear Thangnang Po’n, and Khamtlang, which is called Po’n kop-hoi.

The origins of the patterns for these traditional items of clothing is related in a folktale:

There was once a Kom village by the river Twitak. In the village there was beautiful Kom maiden, named of Jangnu. One day Jangnu went to fetch some water from the river.

On her way she met a handsome young man. The young man, who was actually a python in disguise, showed Jangnu exquisite patterns that fascinated her. Jangnu stayed with the handsome young man for three days and three nights and learnt to weave the patterns.

Jangnu began to weave the patterns into shawls, and loincloths that are worn by women, but was unable to complete them: failing to observe certain rites prescribed by the priest, she had become blind.

Chongnu, another accomplished Kom lady, who conformed to the prescribed rites, is credited with successfully completing the weaving of the patterns onto the traditional items of clothing. These items are sophisticated and aesthetically pleasing. They constitute an admirable part of the Kuki culture. The other cultural traits of the Kukis exhibited by the Koms are Tuhcha (the men wearing their long hair rolled and knotted into a bun, at the nape) and the women’s hairdo: hair braided in two strands and knotted at the top of the head. The Kom men and women use earrings, similar to their Kuki brethren. They also use the traditional musical instruments such as Theile (flute), Pengkul (trumpet), Lhemlhei (a variation of the flute), Dah (gong), and Khong (drum), etc. Rengngam and Rangsai and Khupting and Ngambom are folktales that are common among the Kukis.

The chiefs are traditional rulers of the Kom villages. Pu Neithothlal was a famous Kom chief who ruled gloriously in Tripura. Zampher was a big Kom settlement. It was a city-like village in Zale’n-gam. Zampher witnessed a period of great prosperity and was self-sufficient in all respects. The Koms also established another big township called Keirap. At the height of its glory, reputedly, a dove could not fly cross the township in a single attempt. At present, the main Kom settlements are Kom Keirap, Senpangzar, Sagang, Rakumbi, Khoirentak, Kangathei, Tuiringphai and Tonsen in Manipur. There are also several Kom villages in Assam and Tripura.

Koireng, Chiru, Aimol, Purum, etc. are all sub-clans whose lineage is traced to Kom. They are united under the Komhrem Organisation.

The Lamgangs

(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Lamgangs originated from Khul. They are a notable clan and they take a leading role in the Pakan Association. They are closely related to the Muyon Monsangs and the Anals. The Lamgangs enlisted as brave Kukis by both Assam Rifles. The Mangvum Haokips also used to hire some of the Lamgangs, among whom Pu Serkanang Senkhil may be mentioned.

The Lamgangs have fought very bravely in the First and Second Kuki wars of independence, respectively 1917-1919 and 1943-1945. The Lamgangs are great sepoys and experts in the use of the bow and arrow, as well as the javelin.

Many of the Lamgangs adapted to the Meitei’s way of life and have been assimilated in the process. The Chairen Meitei of Sugnu is said to be the Lamgangs. Presently, the Lamgangs are settled mainly in Chandel District. They form a very important part of the Kuki people.

The Lhungdims

(As narrated by Jamkhohen Lhungdim) The Lhungdims originated from Khul. They are a notable Kuki clan. They are known for their qualities of truthfulness, compassion and humility. These traits enabled them to live in peace with others such as Zou, Haokip, Chongloi and Hangshing, Simte, Paite, etc., with whom they widely mixed.

During the glorious reign of the great chief of Loikhai, a young Lhungdim famously prevented a Dahkang (a big gong, white in colour), the chief’s prized possession, from being taken away by other envious chiefs.

During the Kuki Rising, 1917-1919 the Ukha fort was fiercely guarded under the leadership of a brave Lhungdim commander of the Kuki Warriors. The Lhungdims also fought bravely in the Second Kuki War of Independence, 1942-1945.

Pu Hemthang Lhungdim (father of late Ngulkhohao Lhungdim) spread the Gospel message among the Haokips in Thangting hills. He endured a great deal of hardships. The fruit of his efforts are clearly expressed in a song that he composed:

All over the Thangting hills, a cup of black tea could be hard to find,
And now, milk like water flows as from a spring.

The Lunkims, Changsans, Lenthangs, Thangeos, Lhangums and Lhanghals

(As narrated by Pu Ngamlet Lhanghal) The Lunkims, Changsans, Lenthangs, Thangeos and Lhangums originated from Khul. They are the first to leave Khul. They are also credited to be the first to acquire the knowledge of fire – they provided Songthu and the thirty men with him, who left the subterranean dwelling Khul with ember to start their own fire.

Lunkim, Changsan, Lenthang, Thangeo, Lhangun and Lhanghal are great hunters. It is a common for them to adorn the front porch of their houses with trophies of various kinds of animals. In ancient lore, during a long period of darkness called Mujinlhun, they were able to survive by sustaining themselves with warmth and light from burning the huge amount of animal skulls and horns they had accumulated. During Mujinlhun one normally died if sleep took over. In the twentieth-century, notable among the Lunkim, Changsan, Lenthang, Thangeo, Lhangun and Lhangghal people are:

xxii.Lengjang Kuki was a signatory to the Simon commission of 1929, in Nagaland. He represented the Kuki people.
xxiii.Rev. Dr. T. Lunkim translated the English version of the Holy Bible into a Kuki vernacular. It is called Lekhabu Theng.

The Marings

(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Marings are one of the oldest Kuki groups that originated from Khul. They were referred to as Khongsai like the rest of the Kukis in Manipur State. According to Maring folklore, it was possible for them to come out of Khul only when the mithun (sel) of the Chothe chief opened the gate.

The reference to Kukis as great warriors is to be attributed largely to the Marings. The Marings, attired in their war outfits and carrying shields and swords, perform a very impressive war dance. The accompaniment of their war dance with the trumpets bears the traditional significance of going to battle. The Marings are closely linked to the Pois who live in the Chin Hills and Mizoram. The Phimi and Phingsang clans among the Marings show the direct connection with the Haka Pois in the Chin Hills. The Khoipu clan of the Maring Kukis is related to the Klang Klang clan in the Chin Hills.

The contribution of the Marings in the Kuki Rising 1917-1919 was immense. They conducted a joint operation with the Sita Haokips against the British. Their efficient supply of food in the form of dried meat and fermented beans to the warriors sustained the fight against the enemy. As true Kukis, the Marings fought along with the Indian National Warriors (INA), during the Second Kuki War of Independence in 1942-1945.

The Marings, as in the past, steadfastly maintain their Kuki identity. Their kinsmen and close lineage includes Nambasi, Sote, Kasung, K.Tangkhul, Mairing, Poirou, Lukhumbi, Kharan, Leihao, etc., who are mostly found in the present day Ukhrul District.

The Mates

By Pu HH Mate, Gold Medallist (Pu Jangkhosei Mate, Advisor of Mate Insung Kiloikhom, has endorsed the text.) The Mates originated from Khul. They are a prominent Kuki clan. The term Mate: Ma means ‘front’, and te ‘to strike’. Literally, Mate means ‘front beaters’, or more appropriately it means ‘pathfinders’: people who moved ahead in the process of migration. The Mates are a trans-border people of present day Burma. Racially and linguistically they belong to the Kuki-Chin family. More broadly, they belong to the Tibeto-Burman group of the Mongoloid race, as the rest of the Kuki-Chin people.

Mate is the head of the Gangtes. In the genealogical tree of the Gangtes, there are seven sub-clans: i) Mate, ii) Mangte, iii) Thanglun, iv) Thangsing, v) Hilkheng, vi) Neishiel, and vii) Thangzom.

The Mate clan consists of a further twelve sub-clans: i) Chethang (head of the Gangtes), ii) Langsun/Langgen, iii) Seileai, iv) Chingthat, v) Houlim, vi) Limso, vii) Limsong, viii) Sonlim, ix) Phut-hao, x) Hoimun, xi) Khumjel, and xii) That-hil.

The Mates who are head of the Gangtes settled in different regions of Zale’n-gam. Their main villages are: Tengnoupal, Tuibong, Sahomphai, Tuisomjang, Tuilumjang, Sehlon, Changpol, SL Changpol, Khangtun, Urangpat, Lamjanjg, Chehlep, Leiten (Lonte), Leisen Tengnoupal, Bileijang, Nabil, Manatou, Nungkam, Sigam nom, etc.

The Mate population is comparatively small, but their contribution to Kuki society is significant. They are an adventurous and outgoing people and are in different international countries.

It is worthy of mention that the British India Government awarded Pu Nehhol Mate a Bronze medal, for bravery and heroism.

The Milhiems

(As narrated by Pu Seikhopap Misao) The Milhiems originated from Khul. The Milhiem population is significantly high. They are the descendants of Hangmi. Hangmi had three sons named Lupho, Lupheng and Misao. The Lupho, Lupheng and Misao have adopted Milhiem as their common identity.

Prior to the legendary saga of Moirang Thoibi and Kumbi Khamba, which was two thousand years ago, the Milhiems were settled at the place called Phubala. Phubala is at the foothills of the great Thangjing hill, near Moirang.

Folklore: At Phubala, the Milhems worshipped an idol, representative of a local deity. The deity blessed the Milhiems. It bestowed upon them many brave young men and beautiful maidens.

The neighbours, in particular the Moirang people, were curious about the source of the blessings. They were filled with jealousy and envy and so decided to find out. They discovered that it was the deity of the Thangjing Hill that blessed the Milhiems, and were set to possess it. So, the Moirang people without warning descended upon the Milhems.

A battle between the Milhiems and Moirang people ensued, which lasted for several days. Not expecting such a turn of events to occur, the Milhiems were eventually suppressed by the Moirang people. The Moirang people snatched the Deity from the Milhems and started worshipping it.

As the Milhiems, the Moirang people were blessed with many brave men and beautiful young maidens.

The legendary beauty of Thoibi remains to this day. Many beautiful maidens are said to be have descended from Thoibi who are among the Moirang people. In the old days, the people of Phubala and the people of Moirang communicated with a single dialect. Their customs and culture were also the same. The other Kuki people in Moirang at the time are the Chothes. King Chothe Thangvai Pakhangba was also known as Thangvai Pakhangba or Ivang Purik Lai Thingri Nachouba. He ruled Moirang from BC 90 – to AD 30, as recorded in the pre-history of Moirang.

According to folklore, the Milhiems and the Chothes were at constant rivalry. The Chothes were assimilated to the Moirnag people, partly prompted by the strenuous relations with the Milhiems.

Following the battle with the settlers of Moirang, the Milhiems moved to settle in other parts of Zale’n-gam. The major Milhiems villages are Maphou, Tonglhang, Misao-Lhahvom, Thangkanpahi, N. Zilphai, Lungphou, Molkon, Kangpokpi, and Molvom in Nagaland. They are also settled in North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong in Assam.

The Muyon Monshangs

(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Moyon Monshangs originated from Khul. Among the Kuki groups, the Moyon Monshangs is closest to the Anals. They have formed an association called Pakan as a sign of their oneness with the Anals.

The Moyon Monshangs is a master in archery. They are also very adept in the use of the bow and arrow, as well as the javelin. The Moyon Monshang used these instruments effectively during the Kuki Rising, 1917-1919. They also joined the Indian National Warriors (INA) as a Voluntary force. In 1942, Pu Mono Monsang, chief of Luwachaning was the General Secretary of the Kuki National Assembly (KNA). This is significant in the recent history of the Kukis because it represents the homogeneity of the people. Linguistically, the dialect of the Moyon Monshangs is similar to the dialects of the Tarao, Sailed, Kholimon, Nambashi, Kasung Khotton, Khonglo-Tangkhul, Maring (Meilong) Leihao Pairou, Kabrang and Lukhumbi.

The Paites

(As narrated by Pu Hembul Guite) The Paites originated from Khul. The Paites, who also constitute the Zomi ‘group’, are composed of the following people from the Kuki clans: Guites; Thangsing and Tonsing who are brothers of the Haokip family; Hangzos and Khuptong who are brothers of the Hangsing family; and Zou, Vaiphei, Simte, Chin, and several others, who are all Khulkon people, or people who originated from Khul.

Genealogical investigation reveals the absence of the term ‘Paite’. This is because Paite is not a clan name; it is a name of a ‘group’ of people. According to our history, Paite was a name given to a group of people; Paite means a group from the community of people that went ahead of the rest, in the long process of the migratory period.’

The Guites are the head of the Paites. The Guites are also the head of the ‘new’ Kukis. In the Kuki tradition, the Guites are the repository of Sating*, being the eldest in the ‘new’ Kuki lineage. The Guites receive Sating from the Doungels.

The Paites, by virtue of the Guite headship shared with the various Kuki clans that they embody, are of immense significance. They constitute an integral component of the Kuki people. Every Paite is linked to their Kuki brethren by descent.

The Sitlhous, Lhouvums and Singsits

(As narrated by Pu Thangngam Sitlhou, Sopakai) The Sitlhous, Lhuovums and Singsits originated form Khul. They constitute one of the great clans of the Kukis. Thadou’s eldest son was Sitlhou, Lhouvum was the second son, and Singsit was the younger sibling. They multiplied in numbers. Their chiefs were very powerful and the people spread out to all corners of Zale’n-gam, establishing large settlements. The main ones are Jampi, Khongjang, Sangnau, Ponlen, Chongchin, Aithuh, Songbem, Jolpi, Sanvon, Twithang, Dulen, Lasan, Parbung, Lungthulen, Shirima, Taloulong, etc.

Among them, the Singsit sub-clan is most numerous. Among the Singsit family, the Singsons spread in various directions. The Singsons have assimilated among the Kubui (Milong) in great numbers. The descendants of Shokhojam known as Sogaijam are assimilated amongst the Meitei people of the valley of Manipur. The Singsons are also found in Siam (Thailand) where they are known as ‘Chingsuans’. As a result of this assimilation, today their population is considerably smaller.

The Singson chiefs were powerful and very prosperous. The territory under their domain was extensive. They received huge taxes, perhaps the most among the Kuki clans. The excessive tax levied on the Hmar Kukis was a factor responsible for the Thadou - Hmar conflict.

The Sitlhou, Lhouvum and Singsits fought vigorously in both the First Kuki War of Independent 1917-19, and the Second Kuki War of Independence 1942-1945, to preserve the sovereignty of Zale’n-gam. They were also the first among the Kukis to be converted to Christianity, and consequently some of them sided with the British during the two wars. They were also the first people among the Kukis to receive a western education as a result of their conversion to Christianity. Pu Nagulhao Thomsong translated the Bible into their dialect, which ushered in Christianity among the masses including the Kabui Nagas of Tamenglong district.

The Simtes

(As narrated by Pu Ngulkhopao Simte, Indian Police Service) The Simtes originated from Khul. Simte literally stands for ‘people of the east’ (Sim means East, te means group or people). The Simtes are composed of some the oldest Kuki people. The Thangsings, amongst them, are a part of the Haokip family.

The Simtes are settled mostly in the Southwest of Zale’n-gam. Their main villages in Zale’n-gam are: Lungthul E, Songdai, Maokot, Bolkot, Alu Singtam, Toitengphai, Lamka Simveng, Thanlon and several other villages around Thanlon. They are also in Karbi Anglong and North Cachar hills in present day Assam and in Eastern Zale’n-gam (present day Burma).

The Taraos

(As narrated by Pu Ralngam) The Taraos originated from Khul. Among the Kuki groups the Taraos are very close to the Narum, Saibol and Kholimon clans. They are regarded as one of the eldest clan among the Kuki people. This accords them a high status among the Kukis even though there are only around four Tarao villages, with a population not more than 700. An explanation given for the low population of the Taraos is that they were assimilated into the Metei culture in great numbers. The most prominent among the transformed Tarao Meiteis is the Waikhongs.

In terms of their culture, they represent a vibrant and meaningful part of the Kuki culture.

The Taroa population is relatively small, but their efforts for Zale’n-gam in the First and Second Kuki wars of independence, respectively 1917-1919 and 1943-1945, were excellent.

The Touthangs

(As narrated by Pu Ngamkhai Touthang) The Touthangs originated from Khul. They are a major Kuki clan. Formerly they were known as Kamhow, which changed to Lhamhao. Lhamhao means a wealthy people, not lacking in any item of worldly possession. The prosperity of the Lhamhaos was phenomenal. On one occasion when it was revealed that they were wanting in lice, it was promptly acquired at the price of a Khipi (traditional bead of high economic value) per lice! At the time the value of one Khipi was equivalent to that of a calf. As descendants of Pu Touthang, they later came to be known as Touthangs. Gamngai was a grand settlement of the Touthangs, in Zale’n-gam. Later, they shifted to Khoikai, which grew very prosperous.

Folklore:
On one fine day, the male members of the Touthang village set out to collect honey from a steep cliff off a mountainside.

The cliff was very steep indeed and the beehives were in the middle of the steepest part of the cliff.

And so to get to the honey, a number of them were lowered from above in a large cane-basket tied to a rope.

A fire that was lit beneath the cliff, to smoke out the bees from their hives, began to spread and set the whole Cliffside ablaze.

And a good number of them died.

The population of the Touthang clan is smaller compared to some of the other Kuki clans. This is attributed to the calamitous incident at the cliff, related in the folklore. The surviving Touthangs, it is said, later settled in a place called Singcha in northern Zale’n-gam (in present day Ukhrul district of Manipur).

Today, the Touthangs in Zale’n-gam are mainly settled in Thanaphai, Phaikoh, Tuichin, Moltuh, Dinglen, Denglen, T. Gamnom, Valpabung, Monjol, Belei, Galmol, Vakonphai, Gamnom Khoikai, Mollen, Bijang, Teijang, Khengjang, etc.

The Vaipheis

(As narrated by Sonneithang Vaiphei) The Vaipheis originated from Khul. They are a respectable Kuki clan. In the Kuki custom, a clan name or the name of an individual is derived from the eldest member in the family. The Vaipheis however opted to name themselves after a village, named Khovaiphei. According to tradition, they would be called Suantaks.

Khovaiphei was a prosperous Suantak settlement. The prosperity of the Suantaks was legendary: it is also referred to in the tales of other Kuki clans. A number of other clans of the Kukis were also settled in the village. It is believed that as they were the most powerful clan in the village, they named themselves from the name of their village ‘Khovaiphei’.

Folklore:
Pu Suantak (also called Suantakpa, meaning chief of the Suantaks, also used as an endearing and deferential term) collected taxes and revenues such as Sel-le-kai, Ssamal-leh-changseo in Khovaiphei.

Pu Suantakpa had an unusual way of collecting Samal (hind leg of the animal killed on an occasion or on a hunt). He required the person giving Samal to dress it and also to cook it, as directed.

On one fine day, Pu Gangte went to give Samal to Pu Suantakpa. Pu Suantakpa wanted dried meat, and so he asked Pu Gangte to slice the Samal into thin strips and smoke dry it over a fire. This was not a customary practice among the other clans of Kukis. Therefore, Pu Gangte was displeased.

In anger, Pu Gangte flung the Samal at Pu Suantakpa, who being very old died as instantly as he was hit.

Pu Gangte was filled with remorse for his action that caused the death of his elder brother Pu Suantakpa. And so, Pu Gangte and his family left Khovaiphei and went to Gangam, another part of Zale’n-gam.

Following the death of Pu Suantakpa, his people became reluctant to be named after their chief Pu Suantak. Being the dominant clan in Khovaiphei, the Suantaks claimed the title of the village and named themselves the Vaipheis. As befitting their historical status, the Vaiphei people take immense pride in their identity.

While the Vaipheis ruled over Khovaiphei, the Suktes and the Pois declared war upon them. Following a bitter and prolonged period of battle, the Vaipheis were suppressed and they left Khovaiphei, the village they were deeply attached to.

The Zous

(As narrated by Pu Lamjahao Chief of Mongken) The Zous originated from Khul. They are an important Kuki clan. There are about twenty sub-clans within Zou, namely: Manlun, Mantuang, Tungnung, Tunglut, Tungte, Phiamphu, Taithul, etc.

The Zous are renowned for their bravery. They are regarded as the bravest of the Kuki warriors. The Zous fought tenaciously against the British colonialists in the Kuki Rising, 1917-19 to defend the sovereignty of Zale’n-gam. When the war was over, they evaded imprisonment by claiming that they were the mere Sepoys of Tintong Haokip. The British were only interested in imprisoning the leaders.

The Zous also fought in the Second Kuki War of Independence, 1942-1945 by joining the Indian National Warriors (INA). During WWII, the Zous joined the INA because they saw the opportunity to regain the sovereignty of Zale’n-gam.

Due to their martial quality, the Zous have frequently been involved in wars, wherever it may be. They have fought in different parts of Zale’n-gam and consequently have settled in East Zale’n-gam (present day Burma) as well as in West Zale’n-gam (present day India). This has resulted in a lack of cohesiveness in the Zou society.

Nantal Neino is the oldest known Zou village from where they are said to have dispersed to other parts of Zale’n-gam. The British India Government granted the Zous a reserved territory called the Zou Reserve, similar to the Haokip Reserve they granted to the Haokip chiefs.

The following are the main settlements of the Zous in Zale’n-gam: Behieng, Hengtam, Molhem, Munhoi, Tuimanjang, Behiengjang, Singngat, Simuh, Songkong, Kullen, Belpon, Jabellei Buhsao, Khajang, Tuining, Singtom, Gelngai, Buhsau, Likhai, Chiengpi, Zoveng, etc. A significant number of the Zou people also live in east Zale’n-gam (present day Burma).

The Kuki People of Tripura

The Scheduled Tribe list of the state of Tripura includes a number of tribes under the Kuki nomenclature. In Tripura there has been a conscious effort by the various Kuki tribes/sub-tribes to unite through an acceptable language, based on common usage. To this effect, the people are organised under the umbrella of the Tripura Halam-Kuki Socio-Culture and Linguistic Organisation (THKSCALO).

The Constitution Drafting Committee members of THKSCALO, Pu B.K. Hrangkhawl, Chairman and Pu HT Kluma Darlong and Pu SK Darlong, have drafted a booklet entitled: ‘Constitution/By-law of the Tripura Halam-Kuki Socio-culture and Linguistic Organisation’.

The booklet was approved and adopted on 31 May 1992, by the Central Executive Committee of THKSCALO.

The Kuki tribes of Tripura organised under THKSCALO are as follows:

i) Molson ii) Kaipeng iii) Hrangkhawl iv) Bongcher v) Darlong vi) Ranglong vi) Dab viii) Halam (Khoknu/Nabin) ix) Cholai x) Longhai xi) Morsophang xii) Korbong xiii) Saihmar xiv) Sahkachep xv) Thangachep xvi) Bong

Under the faithful and able leadership of Pu BK Hrangkhawl, the objectives of THKSCALO include the consolidation of the common Kuki identity of the above tribes. This is judged critical in view of the general tendency of the Kuki tribes to drift apart due to the absence of a single unifying common Kuki identity.

The Kuki People of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

The origin of the term Kuki is considered to be in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The first recorded usage of the term was by the Bengalis of Sylhet, who used it to refer to the hill tribes of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The British India Government, in the course of the eastward expansion of their empire subsequently reinforced it. The British applied the term Kuki as a common nomenclature for all the ethnic clans they came in contact with. The Kukis of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is the original owner of the term.

The Bawm people are one of the Kukis of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. They are among the numerous ethnic Kukis also identified by their clan or named after their habitat. Kuki has persisted from antiquity as the collective terminology to identify the clans and groups irrespective of geographical divisions initially created by the British colonialists, and latterly reinforced by international boundaries in the post-colonial era.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts form a significant part of Kuki country delineated in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (vol 13, p 511): ‘Kuki, a name given to a group of tribes inhabiting both sides of the mountains dividing Assam and Bengal from Burma, south of the Namtaleik River.’ A more detailed geographical account of Kuki country is given by Grierson (Tibeto-Burman Family: Specimens of the Kuki-Chin and Burma Groups, Linguistic survey of India, Vol. 111, Pt.111, Published by Office of the Superintendent, Government Printing, India, Calcutta, 1904):

The territory inhabited by the Kuki tribes extends from the Naga Hills in the north down into the Sandoway District of Burma in the south; from Myittha River in the east, almost to the Bay of Bengal in the west. It is almost entirely filled up by hills and mountain ridges, separated by deep valleys.

A great chain of mountains suddenly rises from the plains of Eastern Bengal, about 220 miles north of Calcutta, and stretches eastward in a broadening mass of spurs and ridges, called successively the Garo, Khasia, and Naga Hills. The elevation of the highest point increases towards the east, from about 3,000 feet in the Garo Hills to 8,000 and 9,000 in the region of Manipur.

This chain merges, in the east, into the spurs, which the Himalayas shoot out from the north of Assam towards the south. From here a great mass of mountain ridges starts southwards, enclosing the alluvial valley of Manipur, and thence spreads out westwards to the south of Sylhet. It then runs almost due north and south, with cross-ridges of smaller elevation, through the districts known as the Chin Hills, the Lushai Hills, Hill Tipperah, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Farther south the mountainous region continues, through the Arakan Hill tracts, and the Arakan Yoma, until it finally sinks into the sea at Cape Negrais, the total length of the range being some seven hundred miles.

The greatest elevation is found to the north of Manipur. Thence it gradually diminishes towards the south. Where the ridge enters the north of Arakan it again rises, with summit upwards of 8,000 feet high, and here a mass of spurs is thrown off in all directions. Towards the south the western off-shoots diminish in length, leaving a track of alluvial land between them and the sea, while in the north the eastern off-shoots of the Arakan Yoma run down to the banks of the Irawaddy. This vast mountainous region, from the Jaintia and Naga Hills in the north, is the home of the Kuki tribes. We find them, besides, in the valley of Manipur, and, in small settlements, in the Cachar Plains and Sylhet.

CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS

Location and Topography:

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) [map] is situated in the southern part of Bangladesh. The area is covered with lush green hills, innumerable scattered fountains and hundreds of mountain streamlets. It is bounded in the east by the Arakan (South of Chin State) of Myanmar, Mizoram state of India, in the north by Arakan state of Myanmar, in the west by Chittagong District, and the southern boundary is delineated by the Cox's Bazar District in Bangladesh, rising as high as over 4000 feet in places, the hill ranges contain limited cultivable lands that are distinct from the very fertile multi-yielded alluvial plains of Bangladesh in terms of fertility. The CHTs, now comprising three districts (Rangamati, Banadarban, Khagrachari), are situated between 21025’ and 23045’ north latitude and between 91045’ and 92050’ east longitude. It has a total land area of 13,181 square kms (5,089 sm) and is by surface the largest district in Bangladesh. The districts comprises seven main valleys formed by the Feni, Karnafuli, Chengi, Myni, Kassalong, Sangu and Matamuhuri rivers and their tributaries, and numerous hills (Kiukarotlang, Chinchirmawitlang, Chimbuk), ravines and cliffs covered with dense vegetation (trees, bushes, creepers, jungles etc.) which are in complete contrast to most other districts of Bangladesh, which consist mainly of plain alluvial lands.

Fauna and Flora:

Once upon a time the Bawmram (now called Chittagong Hill Tracts) was famous enough in the country in terms of flora and fauna. It was known as the hunting ground of the Kuki-Chin nation. A wide variety of mammals, carnivores (boars, foxes, weasels, wolves, jack, etc), insectivores (wild bears, gayals, cattle), rodent (flying squirrels, baboons, porcupines, flying lemurs) are found in deep forests and primates are now hardly or frequently found. Tigers, leopard, rhinos and elephants are found mainly in the deep forests across the borders of Myanmar and India. There are a large number of reptiles viz. Gharial, Python and Cobra. The forest cover of Bangladesh is only 17%. The deepest forest in the country located in Bawmram (*Bawmram is generally considered as the Bawm inhabited region).The forest is neither coniferous nor grassland like the selva or savanna; rather it is fluffy and hilly forest that enrich the mountains with greenish scenic beauty throughout the year. Since the forests in this area provide hiding places for preying, most animals that live there are sharp-sighted and fast moving.

Ethnic Identity:

There are eleven ethnic multi-lingual minorities in the greater CHTs. They are Bawm, Pangkhua, Lushai, Khumi, Mro, Khyang, Chakma, Marma and Tripura. They have been divided in to three groups. The Bawm, Pangkhua, Lushai, Khumi and Mro, Khyang are Kuki-Chin or Kuki group. The Tripura, Riang are Tripura group and the Chakma, Marma, Tonchangya, Chak are Arakanese group. These groups differ from each other in terms of languages, customs, religious belief and patterns of social organization. The population of the hill people in the CHT are divided into as many as three groups. The numerically superior ones are Arakanese group and the second are the Tripura group. The Kuki group are the third in numerical strength.

The Kuki group (Bawm):

Kuki group, are called themselves as Tlangmi or hill people (they are Bawm, Pangkhua, Lushai, Khumi, Mro, Khyang). They are known as Chin in Burma and Mizo in India. The Kuki group linguistically and culturally differ from other valley-living people or Jumma (Arakanese and Tripura groups). They belong to the Kuki-Chin branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family. They are an unbridled freedom loving nation. They live on the ridge of hills. They chose different habitats for themselves from the early days of their community-life. This is why the British administrator Capt T.H. Lewin designated them as ‘Tongtha’ (child of the hills). They are the earliest inhabitants in the hill tracts (see the settlement history).The Bawm (Kuki group) are mainly Christian. Some of them are animists.

Tripura and Arakanese Groups:

The Arakanese and Tripura groups now call themselves ‘Jumma’. They live in the low lands. Most of them till today are concentrated in the low land or on the river banks. Capt. T.H. Lewin, therefore, gave them the designation of Khyangtha (child of river). The Chakma, Marma, and Tripura are, on the other hand, valley-dwellers who will settle in higher regions only when pressed for lack of land (loffler, p.39). Although they prefer to call themselve Jumma, they are principally concentrated in the low lands and on the bank of rivers. They hardly dwell in the hilly region. According to Lewin, the Arakanese group moved in the hill areas in 17th century during the Burmese war. They came to the hill areas from the plain lands of Chittagong. Until the beginning of the 18th century Chakma Chiefs still sought to have their position confirmed by the Arakanese king; and only at that time did an ancestor of the present chieftain line, who was returning from exile in Arakan, moved his residence as far north as Rangunia on the Karnafuli (Loffler 1986). According to Prof. Bessaignet, among the Arakanese group, the Marma came in the CHT leaving the plain areas in 1826. The Tripura came to CHt from the Tripura state of India. They are dependent tribes and British subjects. They paid tax-money or tributes to the British. Chakma (Tanchangya), Marma, Chak are Buddist. Tripura (Riang) are Hindu.

The Bawm Life Style:

The Bawm people have been living in the hill regions by practicing a kind of agriculture on the hill-slopes known as ‘Lotuah’ (shifting cultivation). They depend on ‘Lotuah’ for their subsistence. So Lo (cultivable hill) cultivation is absolutely vital for the economy of the indigenous people which others are dependent on gardening and horticulture. They produce ginger, papaya, banana, guava, black-berry, cashew nut, jackfruit, mango, etc. As a consequence of improper decisions and programs implemented by the government deforestation became the ultimate result. The soil are sterile and eventually it terminates to mountain (unfertile-soil on draught) that results in famine in these areas inhabited by the most underprivileged Bawms (Pang, Lushai, Khumi, Mro and Khyang). Moreover, the 1997 peace accord, signed by the Bangladesh Govt. and the JSS (Jana Samhati Samity) for bearing political stability or calm in the CHT area, could not bring any kind of gain for the Bawm population at large.

THE BAWMS AND THEIR SETTLEMENT HISTORY:

A brief history of the CHT:

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) had been a terra incognita to the Aryan people or the plainsmen till the Mughal period and the invasion of British colonial rulers. The hill dweller and unbridled freedom-loving Kuki-Chin nation or Kuki group (Bawm, Pangkhua, Lushai, Khumi, Mro, Khyang) had too remained an unknown aboriginal to the so-called plain people. Before the coming of the Kuki group, the inhospitable land remained undefiled, unploughed and unpopulated. The Kuki group, who were fascinated by the wild beasts in the hills and jungles, lush green valleys and numerous rivers and streams, first came and discovered the terrain. They, afterwards, settled and inhabited the entire tracts. Till the British invasion, the entire regions of the hills were predominantly inhabited by the Kukis. In an initial period of their settlement, the CHT was known as ‘Hunting ground’ of the Kuki-Chin that means the land of the Kuki-Chin nation. The Bengali historian Shree Gopal Halder also substantiated this reality in his book 'History of Bengali Literature’ in page 141 that… the CHT is the land of the Kuki-Chin nation. During British annexation, the CHT was also known as 'Karpas Mahal' by the Bengal and the British administration.

According to the Bangladesh government Chittagong was definitely incorporated into the Mughal Empire in 1666. Although Shaishta Khan, the Mughal governor of Bengal, incorporated in 1666, the empire could not penetrate into and bring the CHT under its control. CHT was, at that time, under the control of freedom Kuki group and the land remained ultra vires till British invasion. On 1st August 1860, according to Bengal Government Act xxii 1860 the hill area was separated from the Chittagong district due to the Kuki rebellion and created the new district (W.W. Hunter, p.7 & Satter, P.135). Bengal was incorporated into the Mughal Empire in 1576; it was ruled independently of the central government within ten years of the death in 1707, of the last significant Mughal emperor, Aurangajeb. By that time, the wealth of the region had attracted the interest of the European powers, which had begun their penetration of India in1757. The British India Company annexed Bengal in 1760 until the independence of India and Pakistan.

The CHT, historically, was a segment of Cin National Territory (Chin-Lushai Land) which was ruled by British India. The British ruled Chin Territory together with India and Burma till 1937 from British India. In 1937, the British divided its administration into two parts, known as British Burma and British India for its administrative convenience. Thus, one part of Chin Territory was ruled from British India and another part fell under the rule of British Burma. This separated Chin Territory into two parts. Again, on 15th August in 1947 the CHT had, due to the partition of the sub-continent on the basis of two-nation theory was completely segregated from the mainstream territory. And the CHT was, thus, incorporated into the East Pakistan without the informed consent of the Kuki people. Since Bangladesh gained its independence, they have been considered part of that country's territory. The Chin National Territory (Chinland) is, today, situated in western part of Burma (now Chinland), northeastern part of India (now Mizoram), and southeastern part of Bangladesh (now CHT). Before British annexed it in 1890, Chinland was an independent country with its own administrative structure, religion, and culture since time immemorial.The Chin people call the Chin hill of Burma as Lairam, while the Bawm people call (called) the CHT as Lairam (now Bawmram). Again, by 18th century both Lushai hills (now Mizoram) and the CHT were known as Kukiland by the plainsmen. It is evident that the CHT had, once, been a part and parcel of the Chin heartland.

The Bawms (Kuki group):

The Kuki group in the CHT are, today, known as Chin in Burma and Mizo in India. The Mizo hills are inhabited by a group of tribes including Lushais, Hmars, Pawis, Lakhers, Paihtes and Raltes. They are generally known as Mizos. Although Mizo is a generic term meaning high Lander (A Biswas, 1985). All the Chin or Mizo groups are known as Kuki by the Aryans. According to R Vanlawma, 'The Mizo group of people who occupy the hill areas between India and Burma are called by Burmese as Chin and by the Bengalese or Indian as Kuki. Chin or Mizo people in the CHT consist of six tribes introducing themselves by various names viz. Bawm (Lai), Pangkhua, Lushai, Khumi, Mru, Khyang.

In the recent past, all the Mizo or Chin people in the CHT were known as Kuki by the Bengali and the Chakma. Although they have, in course of time, been split into various sects and segregated from the main heartland, they still live closely with each other in harmony. The Bawm people always comprise of all Kuki group (Sunthla and Panghawi). According to them (Bawm), the Bawmzo or Bawm comprised of all the Kuki groups or the ethnic group who belong to Chin or Mizo and who are linguistically described as Kuki-Chin. An ancient historian noted that the similar tribes of Lai, Pang, Lushai, Mro, Khumi, Khyang belong to both Sunthla and Panghawi clans. So, Bawm has comprised of two main clans of Sunthla and Panghawi .The term 'Bawm' means unity or united tribes and 'Zo' means highland. The term Bawmzo, therefore, means the united people of highland. In fact, the people of the highlands who have, from various sects belonging to the Chin, become one or in unity are, in fact, called Bawmzo or Bawm. The all CHT of the Bawm populated or dwelling region are (were) known as Bawmram (former Lairam) or Bawmland by the Bawm people. The Kuki tribe scattered throughout the CHT, but a majority of them live in Bandarban district. Most of the Kuki group can now be found in the upper most and the eastern most hill region of the entire CHT such as Kiukarotlang (Keokradong), Chimbuktlang, Chinchirmoitlang (Tajindong), Sippitlang (Ramjumpahar), Tatpawngtlang, Sajek Valley and etc. The hill dwellers include the Lushai, the Pangkhua and the Bawm. They are never attracted to the valleys and their villages are nearly always found on the hill tops and the spurs of hills. The Mro, The Khumi, the Khying are generally found in the traditional areas on the lower crests of hills (Loffler, 1986). The Kukis were in the past, wandering about from one tract to another in search of fertile land and to get rid of mautam (famine). The Bawm litterateur Pu Zirkung Shahu designated them as forest wandering tribe. The Kukis are designated as free hill tribe, particularly Bawm, Pangkhua, Lushai by Lorenz G. Loffler and as Tongtha (child of hill) by Cap. T. H. Lewin. They were also known as head hunting tribe by intruders. They never paid tax levied by the British administration. Lewin mentioned that Mru and Khumi pay tribute to Bohmang. But reports of the British administrator like T.H. Lewin and his successors in the hill areas contained several ethnographic errors regarding the minority Kukis. Since the British could not contact directly and had no good relation with the Kuki group, the administration tried to contact with the Kukis through the majority group so-called Arakanese group and their chiefs. So, Lorenz G. Loffler asserts that both authors (T.H. Lewin & Hutchinson) dealt mainly with the larger groups residing in the major valleys: the Chakma, the Marma, the Tripura. Less information is offered on the smaller groups: the Mru and the Khumi, the Bawm and the Pangkhua, the Khyang and the Sake.

Settlement history of the Bawms (Kuki group):

Zo (Chin) people migrated from western China-Tibet to the Valley of Chindwin and Irrawaddy and then to the Kalay-Kabaw-Myittha valleys. The earliest people Kuki group (Mizo or Chin) moved into the hill tracts around 14th century. According to the book 'The Structure of Chin Society' written by F.K. Lehman, a senior professor at the Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, U.S.A, in chapter 1, A.D 1397, around 14th century from the Chin hill we first hear of the Shan fortress city of Kalay (the Burmese Kalemyo)….we do not know, of course whether the Chin of these plains were as Luce has suggested, pushed up into the hills. Though he could not ascertain how and when the Mizo group (Chin) were pushed up to the hills, it appeared that the Shan occupied the area after the Mizo group left the areas. So, we can presume that the Mizo groups entered the hills in or about 1400 A.D. (R. Vamlawma: Zalen Cabin). It is very obvious from the opinions of the Chin historians like F. K. Lehman and Luce that the Mizo group movement in the up hill regions seem to have been around 14th century. It can be presumed that the Chin people moved into the Lushai hills and CHT around 14th century. It is assumed that the movement of the Kuki groups in the CHT was not in synchronization. According to other English writer the Bawms (Laimi) came to the CHT in the month of October in 1338 from Chin Hills. Anthropologist Lorenz G. Loffler delineated in his map that the Bawms (Lai) and the Lushais moved to the CHT via Mizoram from the adjoining areas of Haka (capital town of Chin heartland). The Khumis and the Mrus came from Kaladan of the northern Arakan (Lower Chinland) in 17th century. T.H. Lewin wrote in 1870 that the Mru and Khumi came to the Chittagong hills District two generations ago. The Masho (Mro) settled in the north Arakan-southern Zo country during 11th century. One Mro was king of Arakan during the 14th century, which suggests that they were powerful. The Lakher came in the CHT around 17th century.

The Kuki group movement in the CHT was thought to have been in three phases. At the very early stage of their movement, they (the eastern hunting and sylvan tribes Bawm, Panghkua, Lushai) came and occupied the tracts by hunting wild beasts and collecting fruits and roots around 14th century. In the second phase, due to Mautam and Thingtam famine, they moved to the fertile land and cultivable deep forests of the hills with a view to settle by practicing Lotuah (shifting cultivation) and domestication. In the third phase they (Khumi, Mro) poured into the hills along with the Arakanese group (Chakma, Marma) around 17th century during Burmese war. But Hutchinson opined that they are (Mro and Khumi) the earliest inhabitants in this district. Among the Kuki group, the movement of the Khyang in the hill areas is not certainly known, but many rivers in the hill areas are signified in Khyang language namely- Kassalong, Assalong, Massalong, Suvolong, Kyasolong. Only the Khyangs call the river as 'Long'. So, it is presumed that they moved in the hill areas earlier than those of the Arakanese and Tripura groups. It is presumed from the theses of some Bawm degree holders, the Bawm movement lasted till 17th century. To their statements a few number of Bawm entered in the hill tracts areas even in the 17th century. They mentioned some Bawm entered the CHT led by Liankung Bawi or Chief. Z. Hmunga wrote, Van Hnuai thlirh, the father of Liankung Bawi or Chief, the successor of Bawm came from Chin Hills of Burma and settled in CHT, Bangladesh inhabiting 'Uiphum tlangdung'. According to Aryan people (Bengali), most of the tribal people migrated from areas now in Burma between 15th and the middle 19th centuries. Bengali annalists and writers like Dr. Abdur Rab, Professor of the Department of Geography and environment of the University of Dhaka and Dr. Mizanur Rahaman Shelly, Chairman of Center for Development Research, Bangladesh (CDRB) and Editor of ASIAN AFFAIRS, hold a firm substantiation as to the earliest settlement of the Kuki group in the hill region in the book of 'Oh Hill! Oh Chittagong!! the souvenir of the CHT issue. To their statements it is evident that before the Aryans and the plain tribal groups intruded and settled, the easterly hunting and forest wandering sylvan tribes belonging to the Kuki group had already settled in the rugged terrain of the hill tract. As they have assumed the Kuki group movement have been around 13th or 14th century. The plain people started to contact with them in Mughal period around 17th – 18th century. In addition to the Kuki group, all the other tribal people are comparatively new settlers in the hill areas. The plain people, who could merely penetrate in the hills, were known as novus homo and intruder to the Kuki group. After being contacted, the plain people coined them as ‘Kuki’ which they meant 'ferocious' or 'savage'. But it is not certain as to the coinage of the term Kuki and whether it really meant 'savage'. The term or word 'Kuki' is neither of Bengali nor Chakma origin. But anthropologist and linguist Dr. Grierson noted that ‘the term Kuki is of Assam use or Bengali origin of some antiquity’.

As historical facts have deduced ‘the earliest people to move into the area seem to have been the Kuki group (viz. Bawm, Pangkhua, Lushai, Khumi, Mro, Khyang).The second phase was opened by the movement of the Tripura group (viz. Riang, Tripua tribes), and the last movement was made by the Arakanese group (viz. Marma, Chakma tribes). According to Prof. Perrie Bassaignet, Head of Sociology Department of Dhaka University and Hutchinson 'the different tribes belonging to the Kuki group appear to be earliest arrivals in the area now known as the CHT. They yielded to and were driven to north-east by the invasion of the Chakma who had gained settlement in the southern portion of the district of Chittagong, but who, during the time of the Burmese wars, were ousted by the Marmas from Arakan and forced to enter the Hill Tracts, while their former possessions were absorbed by the Marmas'. Analysing the historical records of the CHT, it is known that the Kukis were driven or pushed up by the Arakanese group by the assistance of British ruler and the then Administrations. For instance, Chakma chief Harish Chandra, with the collaboration of Captain T.H. Lewin, fought against the Kuki people in 1871-72. In reality, the Kukis had to move in the uphill regions of the CHT with the invasion of the British which was historically known as Chin-Lushai Expedition. According to the historical facts, the Kukis, after being settled in the CHT, had never been driven or conquered by other valley-living tribal peoples or Bengalis. But they fought each other for clan supremacy. For this reason, they were, in the recent past, known as internecine groups in the CHT.

The Bengali movement began in the later 17th century. According to Dr. Shelly the Bengali movement into the CHT date back to the 17th century when braving the natural disadvantages, a small number of Bengal’s made their abodes in the inhospitable terrain of the region upon the invitation of the Chakma chief. So, it is perspicuous that the Kuki group in the CHT are the first inhabitant and autochthon of the CHT. The others are, according to various Bengali writers and historians, new comers or intruders.